Photopolymer

A photopolymer or light-activated resin is a polymer that changes its properties when exposed to light, often in the ultraviolet or visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. These changes are often manifested structurally, for example hardening of the material occurs as a result of cross-linking when exposed to light. An example is shown below depicting a mixture of monomers, oligomers, and photoinitiators that conform into a hardened polymeric material through a process called curing.A wide variety of technologically useful applications rely on photopolymers, for example some enamels and varnishes depend on photopolymer formulation for proper hardening upon exposure to light. In some instances, an enamel can cure in a fraction of a second when exposed to light, as opposed to thermally cured enamels which can require half an hour or longer. Curable materials are widely used for medical, printing, and photoresist technologies. A photopolymer or light-activated resin is a polymer that changes its properties when exposed to light, often in the ultraviolet or visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. These changes are often manifested structurally, for example hardening of the material occurs as a result of cross-linking when exposed to light. An example is shown below depicting a mixture of monomers, oligomers, and photoinitiators that conform into a hardened polymeric material through a process called curing.A wide variety of technologically useful applications rely on photopolymers, for example some enamels and varnishes depend on photopolymer formulation for proper hardening upon exposure to light. In some instances, an enamel can cure in a fraction of a second when exposed to light, as opposed to thermally cured enamels which can require half an hour or longer. Curable materials are widely used for medical, printing, and photoresist technologies. Changes in structural and chemical properties can be induced internally by chromophores that the polymer subunit already possesses, or externally by addition of photosensitive molecules. Typically a photopolymer consists of a mixture of multifunctional monomers and oligomers in order to achieve the desired physical properties, and therefore a wide variety of monomers and oligomers have been developed that can polymerize in the presence of light either through internal or external initiation. Photopolymers undergo a process called curing, where oligomers are cross-linked upon exposure to light, forming what is known as a network polymer. The result of photo curing is the formation of a thermoset network of polymers. One of the advantages of photo-curing is that it can be done selectively using high energy light sources, for example lasers, however, most systems are not readily activated by light, and in this case a photoinitiator is required. Photoinitiators are compounds that upon radiation of light decompose into reactive species that activate polymerization of specific functional groups on the oligomers. An example of a mixture that undergoes cross-linking when exposed to light is shown below. The mixture consists of monomeric styrene and oligomeric acrylates. Most commonly, photopolymerized systems are typically cured through UV radiation, since ultraviolet light is more energetic; however, the development of dye-based photoinitiator systems have allowed for the use of visible light, having potential advantages of processes that are more simple and safe to handle. UV curing in industrial processes has greatly expanded over the past several decades. Many traditional thermally cured and solvent-based technologies can be replaced by photopolymerization technologies. The advantages of photopolymerization over thermally cured polymerization include high rates of polymerization and environmental benefits from elimination of volatile organic solvents. There are two general routes for photoinitiation: free radical and ionic. The general process involves doping a batch of neat polymer with small amounts of photoinitiator, followed by selective radiation of light, resulting a highly cross-linked product. Many of these reactions do not require solvent which eliminates termination path via reaction of initiators with solvent and impurities, in addition to decreasing the overall cost. In ionic curing processes, an ionic photoinitiator is used to activate the functional group of the oligomers that are going to participate in cross-linking. Typically photopolymerization is a very selective process and it is crucial that the polymerization takes place only where it is desired to do so. In order to satisfy this liquid neat oligomer can be doped with either anionic or cationic photoinitiators that will initiate polymerization only when radiated with light. Monomers, or functional groups, employed in cationic photopolymerization include: styrenic compounds, vinyl ethers, N-vinyl carbazoles, lactones, lactams, cyclic ethers, cyclic acetals, and cyclic siloxanes. The majority of ionic photoinitiators fall under the cationic class, anionic photoinitiators are considerably less investigated. There are several classes of cationic initiators including: Onium salts, organometallic compounds and pyridinium salts. As mentioned earlier, one of the drawbacks of the photoinitiators used for photopolymerization is that they tend to absorb in the short UV region. Photosensitizers, or chromophores, that absorb in a much longer wavelength region can be employed to excite the photoinitiators through an energy transfer. Other modifications to these types of systems are free radical assisted cationic polymerization. In this case, a free radical is formed from another specie in solution that reacts with the photoinitiator in order to start polymerization. Although there are a diverse group of compounds activated by cationic photoinitiators, the compounds that find most industrial uses contain epoxides, oxetanes, and vinyl ethers. One of the advantages to using cationic photopolymerization is that once the polymerization has begun it is no longer sensitive to oxygen and does not require an inert atmosphere to perform well. The proposed mechanism for cationic photopolymerization begins with the photoexcitation of the initiator. Once excited, both homolytic cleavage and dissociation of a counter anion takes place, generating cationic radical (R), an aryl radical(R') and unaltered counter anion (X). The abstraction of a lewis acid, in figure above a hydrogen, by the cationic radical produces a very weakly bound hydrogen and a free radical. The acid is further deprotonated by the anion(X) in solution generating a lewis acid with the starting anion (X) as a counter ion. It is thought that the acidic proton generated is what ultimately initiates the polymerization. Since their discovery in the 1970s aryl onium salts, more specifically iodonium and sulfonium salts, have received much attention and have found many industrial applications. Other less common, onium salts not mentioned here include ammonium and phosphonium salts. The typical onium compound used as a photoinitiator contains two or three arene groups for iodonium and sulfonium respectively. Onium salts generally absorb short wavelength light in the UV region spanning from 225–300 nm.:293 One characteristic that is crucial to the performance of the onium photoinitiators is that the counter anion is non-nucleophilic. Since the Brønsted acid generated during the initiation step is considered the active initiator for polymerization, there is a termination route where the counter ion of the acid could act as the nucleophile instead of a functional groups on the oligomer. Common counter anions include: BF−4, PF−6, AsF−6, SbF−6. There is an indirect relationship between the size of the counter ion and percent conversion. Although less common, transition metal complexes can act as cationic photoinitiators as well. In general, the mechanism is more simplistic than the onium ions previously described. Most photoinitiators of this class consist of a metal salt with a non-nucleophilic counter anion. For example, ferrocinium salts have received much attention for commercial applications. The absorption band for ferrocinium salt derivatives are in a much longer, and sometimes visible, region. Upon radiation the metal center loses a ligand(s) and the ligand(s) is replaced by functional groups that begin the polymerization. One of the drawbacks of this method is a greater sensitivity to oxygen. There are also several organometallic anionic photoinitiators which react through a similar mechanism. For the anionic case, excitation of a metal center is followed by either heterolytic bond cleavage or electron transfer generating the active anionic initiator.