Nanofiltration

Nanofiltration (NF) is a relatively recent membrane filtration process used most often with low total dissolved solids water such as surface water and fresh groundwater, with the purpose of softening (polyvalent cation removal) and removal of disinfection by-product precursors such as natural organic matter and synthetic organic matter.Room temperature solvent exchangePurification of gas condensatesContinuous recovery of homogeneous catalystsEnrichment of natural compoundsGentle Separations Nanofiltration (NF) is a relatively recent membrane filtration process used most often with low total dissolved solids water such as surface water and fresh groundwater, with the purpose of softening (polyvalent cation removal) and removal of disinfection by-product precursors such as natural organic matter and synthetic organic matter. Nanofiltration is also becoming more widely used in food processing applications such as dairy, for simultaneous concentration and partial (monovalent ion) demineralisation. Nanofiltration is a membrane filtration-based method that uses nanometer sized through-pores that pass through the membrane. Nanofiltration membranes have pore sizes from 1-10 nanometers, smaller than that used in microfiltration and ultrafiltration, but just larger than that in reverse osmosis. Membranes used are predominantly created from polymer thin films. Materials that are commonly used include polyethylene terephthalate or metals such as aluminum. Pore dimensions are controlled by pH, temperature and time during development with pore densities ranging from 1 to 106 pores per cm2. Membranes made from polyethylene terephthalate and other similar materials, are referred to as 'track-etch' membranes, named after the way the pores on the membranes are made. 'Tracking' involves bombarding the polymer thin film with high energy particles. This results in making tracks that are chemically developed into the membrane, or 'etched' into the membrane, which are the pores.Membranes created from metal such as alumina membranes, are made by electrochemically growing a thin layer of aluminum oxide from aluminum metal in an acidic medium. Historically, nanofiltration and other membrane technology used for molecular separation was applied entirely on aqueous systems. The original uses for nanofiltration were water treatment and in particular water softening. Nanofilters can 'soften' water by retaining scale-forming, hydrated divalent ions (e.g. Ca2+, Mg2+) while passing smaller hydrated monovalent ions. In recent years, the use of nanofiltration has been extended into other industries such as milk and juice production. Research and development in solvent-stable membranes has allowed the application for nanofiltration membranes to extend into new areas such as pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and flavour and fragrance industries. One of the main advantages of nanofiltration as a method of softening water is that during the process of retaining calcium and magnesium ions while passing smaller hydrated monovalent ions, filtration is performed without adding extra sodium ions, as used in ion exchangers. Many separation processes do not operate at room temperature (e.g. distillation), which greatly increases the cost of the process when continuous heating or cooling is applied. Performing gentle molecular separation is linked with nanofiltration that is often not included with other forms of separation processes (centrifugation). These are two of the main benefits that are associated with nanofiltration. Nanofiltration has a very favorable benefit of being able to process large volumes and continuously produce streams of products. Still, Nanofiltration is the least used method of membrane filtration in industry as the membrane pores sizes are limited to only a few nanometers. Anything smaller, reverse osmosis is used and anything larger is used for ultrafiltration. Ultrafiltration can also be used in cases where nanofiltration can be used, due to it being more conventional. A main disadvantage associated with nanotechnology, as with all membrane filter technology, is the cost and maintenance of the membranes used. Nanofiltration membranes are an expensive part of the process. Repairs and replacement of membranes is dependent on total dissolved solids, flow rate and components of the feed. With nanofiltration being used across various industries, only an estimation of replacement frequency can be used. This causes nanofilters to be replaced a short time before or after their prime usage is complete. Industrial applications of membranes require hundreds to thousands of square meters of membranes and therefore an efficient way to reduce the footprint by packing them is required. Membranes first became commercially viable when low cost methods of housing in 'modules' were achieved. Membranes are not self-supporting. They need to be stayed by a porous support that can withstand the pressures required to operate the NF membrane without hindering the performance of the membrane. To do this effectively, the module needs to provide a channel to remove the membrane permeation and provide appropriate flow condition that reduces the phenomena of concentration polarisation. A good design minimises pressure losses on both the feed side and permeate side and thus energy requirements. Leakage of the feed into the permeate stream must also be prevented. This can be done through either the use of permanent seals such as glue or replaceable seals such as O-rings. Concentration polarisation describes the accumulation of the species being retained close to the surface of the membrane which reduces separation capabilities. It occurs because the particles are convected towards the membrane with the solvent and its magnitude is the balance between this convection caused by solvent flux and the particle transport away from the membrane due to the concentration gradient (predominantly caused by diffusion.) Although concentration polarisation is easily reversible, it can lead to fouling of the membrane. Spiral wound modules are the most commonly used style of module and are 'standardized' design, available in a range of standard diameters (2.5', 4' and 8') to fit standard pressure vessel that can hold several modules in series connected by O-rings. The module uses flat sheets wrapped around a central tube. The membranes are glued along three edges over a permeate spacer to form 'leaves'. The permeate spacer supports the membrane and conducts the permeate to the central permeate tube. Between each leaf, a mesh like feed spacer is inserted. The reason for the mesh like dimension of the spacer is to provide a hydrodynamic environment near the surface of the membrane that discourages concentration polarisation. Once the leaves have been wound around the central tube, the module is wrapped in a casing layer and caps placed on the end of the cylinder to prevent 'telescoping' that can occur in high flow rate and pressure conditions.