Ebonite

Ebonite is a brand name for very hard rubber first obtained by vulcanizing natural rubber for prolonged periods. Besides natural rubber, Ebonite contains about 25–80% sulfur and linseed oil. Its name comes from its intended use as an artificial substitute for ebony wood. The material is known generically as hard rubber and has formerly been called vulcanite, although that name now refers to the mineral vulcanite. Ebonite is a brand name for very hard rubber first obtained by vulcanizing natural rubber for prolonged periods. Besides natural rubber, Ebonite contains about 25–80% sulfur and linseed oil. Its name comes from its intended use as an artificial substitute for ebony wood. The material is known generically as hard rubber and has formerly been called vulcanite, although that name now refers to the mineral vulcanite. Charles Goodyear's brother Nelson Goodyear experimented with the chemistry of ebonite composites. In 1851 he used zinc oxide as a filler. Hugh Silver was responsible for giving it its name. The sulfur percentage and the applied temperatures and duration during vulcanizing are the main variables that determine the technical properties of the hard rubber polysulfide elastomer. The occurring reaction is basically addition of sulfur at the double bonds, forming intramolecular ring structures, so a large portion of the sulfur is highly cross-linked in the form of intramolecular addition. As a result of having a maximum sulfur content up to 40%, it may be used to resist swelling and minimize dielectric loss. The strongest mechanical properties and greatest heat resistance is obtained with sulfur contents around 35% while the highest impact strength can be obtained with a lower sulfur content of 30%. The rigidity of hard rubber at room temperature is attributed to the van der Waals forces between the intramolecular sulfur atoms. Raising the temperature gradually increases the molecular vibrations that overcome the van der Waals forces making it elastic. Hard rubber has a content mixture dependent density around 1.1 to 1.2. When reheated hard rubber exhibits shape-memory effect and can be fairly easy reshaped within certain limits. Depending on the sulfur percentage hard rubber has a thermoplastic transition or softening temperature of 70 to 80 °C (158 to 176 °F). The material is brittle, which produces problems in its use in battery cases for example, where the integrity of the case is vital to prevent leakage of sulfuric acid. It has now been generally replaced by carbon black -filled polypropylene. Under the influence of the ultraviolet portion in daylight hard rubber oxidizes and exposure to moisture bonds water with free sulfur on the surface creating sulfates and sulfuric acid at the surface that are very hygroscopic. The sulfates condense water from the air, forming a hydrophilic film with favorable wettability characteristics on the surface. These aging processes will gradually discolor the surface grayish green to brown and cause rapid deterioration of electric surface resistivity.