Black magic

Black magic has traditionally referred to the use of supernatural powers or magic for evil and selfish purposes. With respect to the left-hand path and right-hand path dichotomy, black magic is the malicious, left-hand counterpart of the benevolent white magic. In modern times, some find that the definition of 'black magic' has been convoluted by people who define magic or ritualistic practices that they disapprove of as 'black magic'. Like its counterpart white magic, the origins of black magic can be traced to the primitive, ritualistic worship of spirits as outlined in Robert M. Place's 2009 book, Magic and Alchemy. Unlike white magic, in which Place sees parallels with primitive shamanistic efforts to achieve closeness with spiritual beings, the rituals that developed into modern 'black magic' were designed to invoke those same spirits to produce beneficial outcomes for the practitioner. Place also provides a broad modern definition of both black and white magic, preferring instead to refer to them as 'high magic' (white) and 'low magic' (black) based primarily on intentions of the practitioner employing them. He acknowledges, though, that this broader definition (of 'high' and 'low') suffers from prejudices because good-intentioned folk magic may be considered 'low' while ceremonial magic involving expensive or exclusive components may be considered by some as 'high magic', regardless of intent. During the Renaissance, many magical practices and rituals were considered evil or irreligious and by extension, 'black magic' in the broad sense. Witchcraft and non-mainstream esoteric study were prohibited and targeted by the Inquisition. As a result, natural magic developed as a way for thinkers and intellectuals, like Marsilio Ficino, abbot Johannes Trithemius and Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, to advance esoteric and ritualistic study (though still often in secret) without significant persecution. While 'natural magic' became popular among the educated and upper classes of the 16th and 17th century, ritualistic magic and folk magic remained subject to persecution. 20th century author Montague Summers generally rejects the definitions of 'white' and 'black' magic as 'contradictory', though he highlights the extent to which magic in general, regardless of intent, was considered 'black' and cites William Perkins posthumous 1608 instructions in that regard: In particular, though, the term was most commonly reserved for those accused of invoking demons and other evil spirits, those hexing or cursing their neighbours, those using magic to destroy crops, and those capable of leaving their earthly bodies and travelling great distances in spirit (to which the Malleus Maleficarum 'devotes one long and important chapter'), usually to engage in devil-worship. Summers also highlights the etymological development of the term nigromancer, in common use from 1200 to approximately 1500, (Latin: Niger, black; Greek: Manteia, divination), broadly 'one skilled in the black arts'. In a modern context, the line between 'white magic' and 'black magic' is somewhat clearer and most modern definitions focus on intent rather than practice. There is also an extent to which many modern Wicca and witchcraft practitioners have sought to distance themselves from those intent on practising black magic. Those who seek to do harm or evil are less likely to be accepted into mainstream Wiccan circles or covens in an era where benevolent magic is increasingly associated with new-age Gnosticism and self-help spiritualism. The influence of popular culture has allowed other practices to be drawn in under the broad banner of 'black magic', including the concept of Satanism. While the invocation of demons or spirits is an accepted part of black magic, this practice is distinct from the worship or deification of such spiritual beings. The two are usually combined in medieval beliefs about witchcraft. Those lines, though, continue to be blurred by the inclusion of spirit rituals from otherwise 'white magicians' in compilations of work related to Satanism. John Dee's sixteenth century rituals, for example, were included in Anton LaVey's The Satanic Bible (1969) and so some of his practises, otherwise considered white magic, have since been associated with black magic. Dee's rituals themselves were designed to contact spirits in general and angels in particular, which he claimed to have been able to do with the assistance of colleague Edward Kelley. LaVey's Bible, however, is a 'complete contradiction' of Dee's intentions but offers the same rituals as a means of contact with evil spirits and demons. LaVey's Church of Satan (with LaVey's Bible at its centre), 'officially denies the efficacy of occult ritual' but 'affirms the subjective, psychological value of ritual practice', drawing a clear distinction between. LaVey himself was more specific: