Self-assembled monolayer

Self-assembled monolayers (SAM) of organic molecules are molecular assemblies formed spontaneously on surfaces by adsorption and are organized into more or less large ordered domains. In some cases molecules that form the monolayer do not interact strongly with the substrate. This is the case for instance of the two-dimensional supramolecular networks of e.g. perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA) on gold or of e.g. porphyrins on highly oriented pyrolitic graphite (HOPG). In other cases the molecules possess a head group that has a strong affinity to the substrate and anchors the molecule to it. Such a SAM consisting of a head group, tail and functional end group is depicted in Figure 1. Common head groups include thiols, silanes, phosphonates, etc. Self-assembled monolayers (SAM) of organic molecules are molecular assemblies formed spontaneously on surfaces by adsorption and are organized into more or less large ordered domains. In some cases molecules that form the monolayer do not interact strongly with the substrate. This is the case for instance of the two-dimensional supramolecular networks of e.g. perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA) on gold or of e.g. porphyrins on highly oriented pyrolitic graphite (HOPG). In other cases the molecules possess a head group that has a strong affinity to the substrate and anchors the molecule to it. Such a SAM consisting of a head group, tail and functional end group is depicted in Figure 1. Common head groups include thiols, silanes, phosphonates, etc. SAMs are created by the chemisorption of 'head groups' onto a substrate from either the vapor or liquid phase followed by a slow organization of 'tail groups'. Initially, at small molecular density on the surface, adsorbate molecules form either a disordered mass of molecules or form an ordered two-dimensional 'lying down phase', and at higher molecular coverage, over a period of minutes to hours, begin to form three-dimensional crystalline or semicrystalline structures on the substrate surface. The 'head groups' assemble together on the substrate, while the tail groups assemble far from the substrate. Areas of close-packed molecules nucleate and grow until the surface of the substrate is covered in a single monolayer. Adsorbate molecules adsorb readily because they lower the surface free-energy of the substrate and are stable due to the strong chemisorption of the 'head groups.' These bonds create monolayers that are more stable than the physisorbed bonds of Langmuir–Blodgett films. A Trichlorosilane based 'head group', for example in a FDTS molecule, reacts with a hydroxyl group on a substrate, and forms very stable, covalent bond with an energy of 452 kJ/mol. Thiol-metal bonds are on the order of 100 kJ/mol, making them fairly stable in a variety of temperatures, solvents, and potentials. The monolayer packs tightly due to van der Waals interactions, thereby reducing its own free energy. The adsorption can be described by the Langmuir adsorption isotherm if lateral interactions are neglected. If they cannot be neglected, the adsorption is better described by the Frumkin isotherm. Selecting the type of head group depends on the application of the SAM. Typically, head groups are connected to a molecular chain in which the terminal end can be functionalized (i.e. adding –OH, –NH2, –COOH, or –SH groups) to vary the wetting and interfacial properties. An appropriate substrate is chosen to react with the head group. Substrates can be planar surfaces, such as silicon and metals, or curved surfaces, such as nanoparticles. Alkanethiols are the most commonly used molecules for SAMs. Alkanethiols are molecules with an alkyl chain, (C-C)ⁿ chain, as the back bone, a tail group, and a S-H head group. Other types of interesting molecules include aromatic thiols, of interest in molecular electronics, in which the alkane chain is (partly) replaced by aromatic rings. An example is the dithiol 1,4-Benzenedimethanethiol (SHCH2C6H4CH2SH)). Interest in such dithiols stems from the possibility of linking the two sulfur ends to metallic contacts, which was first used in molecular conduction measurements. Thiols are frequently used on noble metal substrates because of the strong affinity of sulfur for these metals. The sulfur gold interaction is semi-covalent and has a strength of approximately 45kcal/mol. In addition, gold is an inert and biocompatible material that is easy to acquire. It is also easy to pattern via lithography, a useful feature for applications in nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS). Additionally, it can withstand harsh chemical cleaning treatments. Recently other chalcogenide SAMs: selenides and tellurides have attracted attention in a search for different bonding characteristics to substrates affecting the SAM characteristics and which could be of interest in some applications such as molecular electronics. Silanes are generally used on nonmetallic oxide surfaces; however monolayers formed from covalent bonds between silicon and carbon or oxygen cannot be considered self assembled because they do not form reversibly. Self-assembled monolayers of thiolates on noble metals are a special case because the metal-metal bonds become reversible after the formation of the thiolate-metal complex. This reversibility is what gives rise to vacancy islands and it is why SAMs of alkanethiolates can be thermally desorbed and undergo exchange with free thiols. Metal substrates for use in SAMs can be produced through physical vapor deposition techniques, electrodeposition or electroless deposition. Thiol or selenium SAMs produced by adsorption from solution are typically made by immersing a substrate into a dilute solution of alkane thiol in ethanol, though many different solvents can be used besides use of pure liquids. While SAMs are often allowed to form over 12 to 72 hours at room temperature, SAMs of alkanethiolates form within minutes. Special attention is essential in some cases, such as that of dithiol SAMs to avoid problems due to oxidation or photoinduced processes, which can affect terminal groups and lead to disorder and multilayer formation. In this case appropriate choice of solvents, their degassing by inert gasses and preparation in the absence of light is crucial and allows formation of 'standing up' SAMs with free –SH groups. Self-assembled monolayers can also be adsorbed from the vapor phase. In some cases when obtaining an ordered assembly is difficult or when different density phases need to be obtained substitutional self-assembly is used. Here one first forms the SAM of a given type of molecules, which give rise to ordered assembly and then a second assembly phase is performed (e.g. by immersion into a different solution). This method has also been used to give information on relative binding strengths of SAMs with different head groups and more generally on self-assembly characteristics. The thicknesses of SAMs can be measured using ellipsometry and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), which also give information on interfacial properties. The order in the SAM and orientation of molecules can be probed by Near Edge Xray Absorption Fine Structure (NEXAFS) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy in Reflection Absorption Infrared Spectroscopy (RAIRS) studies. Numerous other spectroscopic techniques are used such as Second-harmonic generation (SHG), Sum-frequency generation (SFG), Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), as well as High-resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (HREELS). The structures of SAMs are commonly determined using scanning probe microscopy techniques such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). STM has been able to help understand the mechanisms of SAM formation as well as determine the important structural features that lend SAMs their integrity as surface-stable entities. In particular STM can image the shape, spatial distribution, terminal groups and their packing structure. AFM offers an equally powerful tool without the requirement of the SAM being conducting or semi-conducting. AFM has been used to determine chemical functionality, conductance, magnetic properties, surface charge, and frictional forces of SAMs. The scanning vibrating electrode technique (SVET) is a further scanning probe microscopy which has been used to characterize SAMs, with defect free SAMs showing homogeneous activity in SVET. More recently, however, diffractive methods have also been used. The structure can be used to characterize the kinetics and defects found on the monolayer surface. These techniques have also shown physical differences between SAMs with planar substrates and nanoparticle substrates.An alternative characterisation instrument for measuring the self-assembly in real time is dual polarisation interferometry where the refractive index, thickness, mass and birefringence of the self assembled layer are quantified at high resolution. Contact angle measurements can be used to determine the surface free-energy which reflects the average composition of the surface of the SAM and can be used to probe the kinetics and thermodynamics of the formation of SAMs. The kinetics of adsorption and temperature induced desorption as well as information on structure can also be obtained in real time by ion scattering techniques such as low energy ion scattering (LEIS) and time of flight direct recoil spectroscopy (TOFDRS). Defects due to both external and intrinsic factors may appear. External factors include the cleanliness of the substrate, method of preparation, and purity of the adsorbates. SAMs intrinsically form defects due to the thermodynamics of formation, e.g. thiol SAMs on gold typically exhibit etch pits (monatomic vacancy islands) likely due to extraction of adatoms from the substrate and formation of adatom-adsorbate moieties. Recently, a new type of fluorosurfactants have found that can form nearly perfect monolayer on gold substrate due to the increase of mobility of gold surface atoms. The structure of SAMs is also dependent on the curvature of the substrate. SAMs on nanoparticles, including colloids and nanocrystals, 'stabilize the reactive surface of the particle and present organic functional groups at the particle-solvent interface'. These organic functional groups are useful for applications, such as immunoassays or sensors, that are dependent on chemical composition of the surface. There is evidence that SAM formation occurs in two steps: an initial fast step of adsorption and a second slower step of monolayer organization. Adsorption occurs at the liquid–liquid, liquid–vapor, and liquid-solid interfaces. The transport of molecules to the surface occurs due to a combination of diffusion and convective transport. According to the Langmuir or Avrami kinetic model the rate of deposition onto the surface is proportional to the free space of the surface.