Optimal distinctiveness theory

Optimal distinctiveness is a social psychological theory seeking to understand ingroup–outgroup differences. It asserts that individuals desire to attain an optimal balance of inclusion and distinctiveness within and between social groups and situations (Brewer, 2003). These two motives are in constant opposition with each other; when there is too much of one motive, the other must increase in order to counterbalance it and vice versa (Brewer, 1991). The theory of optimal distinctiveness was first proposed by Dr. Marilynn B. Brewer in 1991 and extensively reviewed in 2010 by Drs. Geoffrey J. Leonardelli, Cynthia L. Pickett, and Marilynn Brewer. The origins of optimal distinctiveness theory are linked to evolutionary theory (Brewer, 1999). Brewer (1991, 1999) argued that humans, during the course of their evolution, developed in ways that would not allow them to live independently of other people; that is, humans need to be part of larger groups in order to survive. Since social groups are thus fundamental for human growth and prosperity, the thesis from which optimal distinctiveness was created states that distinctiveness itself is the motive which determines the “selection and strength of social identities” (Brewer, 2003) between social groups and satisfies an individual’s own psychological needs (Brewer 1999, 2003). Building on that thesis, optimal distinctiveness theory states that ingroup distinctiveness must be equalized by assimilation, which is an independent yet opposing motive for group identification (Brewer, 1991, 1999, 2003). Put more simply, there is more or less a “continuum” characterized by uniqueness (of an individual from the group) at one extreme and homogeneity at the other; individuals must seek the optimal balance of the two extremes in order to maintain successful and self-satisfactory group membership. An “optimal identity”, therefore, is one that “satisfies the need for inclusion within the ingroup' (identifying with the particular group) as well as 'the need for distinctiveness between the ingroup and outgroups', so as to distinguish that particular group from others (Brewer, 1991, 2003; Sheldon & Bettencourt, 2002). Moreover, Brewer asserts that individuals will only define themselves in terms of appropriate social identities that are “optimally distinctive” and will refuse identities which are either too assimilated or too different. Each experience “occurs at the expense of the other” (Sheldon & Bettencourt, 2002). Equilibrium is dynamic and constantly corrects deviations from optimality (Brewer, 1991, 2003). Individuals will seek out and maintain group memberships that allow this equilibrium to be operated at an optimal level, which depends on the particular social context (Brewer, 2003).This optimal level of group membership, according to the theory, is associated with a positive self-concept (Brewer, 1991, 2003). The following are the actual tenets of optimal distinctiveness theory as explicitly stated by Dr. Brewer in her 1991 work, “The social self: on being the same and different at the same time” on page 478: