Machiavellianism

Machiavellianism is the political philosophy of the Italian Renaissance diplomat Niccolò Machiavelli, expressed notably in his theoretical and historical writings such as Il Principe (The Prince), and the Discourses on Livy, among other works. The words Machiavellian and Machiavellianism gained popularity in the late 16th century, due to the notoriety of Machiavelli's books. Machiavellianism is the political philosophy of the Italian Renaissance diplomat Niccolò Machiavelli, expressed notably in his theoretical and historical writings such as Il Principe (The Prince), and the Discourses on Livy, among other works. The words Machiavellian and Machiavellianism gained popularity in the late 16th century, due to the notoriety of Machiavelli's books. In the field of personality psychology, 'Machiavellianism' (or Mach scale) could also refer to the name given to a psychological trait conceptualized by psychologist Richard Christie, centered on manipulativeness, callousness, and an indifference to morality. Since both concepts are unrelated yet have the same name, see the 'Psychology' section below for details. After his exile from political life in 1512, Machiavelli took to a life of writing, which led to the publishing of his most famous work, The Prince. The book would become infamous for its recommendation for absolute rulers to be ready to act in unscrupulous ways, such as resorting to fraud and treachery, elimination of political opponents, and the usage of fear as a means of keeping public order. Machiavelli's view that acquiring a state and maintaining it requires evil means has been noted as the chief theme of the treatise. He has become infamous for this advice, so much so that the adjective Machiavellian would later on describe a type of politics that is 'marked by cunning, duplicity, or bad faith'. While Machiavelli has become widely popular for his work on principalities, his other major work, The Discourses on Livy, focused mainly on republican statecraft, and his recommendations for a well ordered republic. Machiavelli noted how free republics have power structures that are better than principalities. He also notes how advantageous a government by a republic could be as opposed to just a single ruler. However, Machiavelli's more controversial statements on politics can also be found even in his other works. For example, Machiavelli notes that sometimes extraordinary means, such as violence, can be used in reordering a country. In one area, he praises Romulus, who murdered his brother and co-ruler in order to have power by himself to found the city of Rome. In a few passages he sometimes explicitly acts as an advisor of tyrants as well. Some scholars have even asserted that the goal of his ideal republic does not differ greatly from his principality, as both rely on rather ruthless measures for aggrandizement and empire. In one passage of The Prince, Machiavelli subverts the advice given by Cicero to avoid duplicity and violence, by saying that the prince should 'be the fox to avoid the snares, and a lion to overwhelm the wolves'. It would become one of Machiavelli's most notable statements. Because cruelty and deception play such important roles in his politics, it is not unusual for related issues—such as murder and betrayal—to rear their heads with regularity. Machiavelli's own concept of virtue, which he calls 'virtù', is original and is usually seen by scholars as different from the traditional viewpoints of other political philosophers. Virtú can consist of any quality at the moment that helps a ruler maintain his state, even being ready to engage in necessary evil when it is advantageous. Due to the treatise's controversial analysis on politics, in 1559, the Catholic Church banned The Prince, putting it on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum.