Stall (fluid mechanics)

In fluid dynamics, a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a foil as angle of attack increases. This occurs when the critical angle of attack of the foil is exceeded. The critical angle of attack is typically about 15 degrees, but it may vary significantly depending on the fluid, foil, and Reynolds number. In fluid dynamics, a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a foil as angle of attack increases. This occurs when the critical angle of attack of the foil is exceeded. The critical angle of attack is typically about 15 degrees, but it may vary significantly depending on the fluid, foil, and Reynolds number. Stalls in fixed-wing flight are often experienced as a sudden reduction in lift as the pilot increases the wing's angle of attack and exceeds its critical angle of attack (which may be due to slowing down below stall speed in level flight). A stall does not mean that the engine(s) have stopped working, or that the aircraft has stopped moving—the effect is the same even in an unpowered glider aircraft. Vectored thrust in manned and unmanned aircraft is used to maintain altitude or controlled flight with wings stalled by replacing lost wing lift with engine or propeller thrust, thereby giving rise to post-stall technology. Because stalls are most commonly discussed in connection with aviation, this article discusses stalls as they relate mainly to aircraft, in particular fixed-wing aircraft. The principles of stall discussed here translate to foils in other fluids as well. A stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation such that if the angle of attack increases beyond a certain point then lift begins to decrease. The angle at which this occurs is called the critical angle of attack. This critical angle is dependent upon the airfoil section or profile of the wing, its planform, its aspect ratio, and other factors, but is typically in the range of 8 to 20 degrees relative to the incoming wind ('relative wind') for most subsonic airfoils. The critical angle of attack is the angle of attack on the lift coefficient versus angle-of-attack (Cl~alpha) curve at which the maximum lift coefficient occurs. Stalling is caused by flow separation which, in turn, is caused by the air flowing against a rising pressure. Whitford describes three types of stall, trailing-edge, leading-edge and thin-aerofoil, each with distinctive Cl~alpha features. For the trailing-edge stall separation begins at small angles of attack near the trailing edge of the wing while the rest of the flow over the wing remains attached. As angle of attack increases, the separated regions on the top of the wing increase in size as the flow separation moves forwards and this hinders the ability of the wing to create lift. This is shown by the reduction in lift-slope on a Cl~alpha curve as the lift nears its maximum value. The separated flow usually causes buffeting. Beyond the critical angle of attack, separated flow is so dominant that additional increases in angle of attack cause the lift to fall from its peak value. Piston-engined and early jet transports had very good stall behaviour with pre-stall buffet warning and, if ignored, a straight nose-drop for a natural recovery. Wing developments that came with the introduction of turbo-prop engines introduced unacceptable stall behaviour. Leading-edge developments on high-lift wings and the introduction of rear-mounted engines and high-set tailplanes on the next generation of jet transports also introduced unacceptable stall behaviour. The probability of achieving the stall speed inadvertently, a potentially hazardous event, had been calculated, in 1965, at about once in every 100,000 flights, often enough to justify the cost of development and incorporation of warning devices, such as stick shakers, and devices to automatically provide an adequate nose-down pitch, such as stick pushers. When the mean angle of attack of the wings is beyond the stall a spin, which is an autorotation of a stalled wing, may develop. A spin follows departures in roll, yaw and pitch from balanced flight. For example, a roll is naturally damped with an unstalled wing but with wings stalled the damping moment is replaced with a propelling moment. The graph shows that the greatest amount of lift is produced as the critical angle of attack is reached (which in early-20th century aviation was called the 'burble point'). This angle is 17.5 degrees in this case, but it varies from airfoil to airfoil. In particular, for aerodynamically thick airfoils (thickness to chord ratios of around 10%), the critical angle is higher than with a thin airfoil of the same camber. Symmetric airfoils have lower critical angles (but also work efficiently in inverted flight). The graph shows that, as the angle of attack exceeds the critical angle, the lift produced by the airfoil decreases. The information in a graph of this kind is gathered using a model of the airfoil in a wind tunnel. Because aircraft models are normally used, rather than full-size machines, special care is needed to make sure that data is taken in the same Reynolds number regime (or scale speed) as in free flight. The separation of flow from the upper wing surface at high angles of attack is quite different at low Reynolds number from that at the high Reynolds numbers of real aircraft. High-pressure wind tunnels are one solution to this problem. In general, steady operation of an aircraft at an angle of attack above the critical angle is not possible because, after exceeding the critical angle, the loss of lift from the wing causes the nose of the aircraft to fall, reducing the angle of attack again. This nose drop, independent of control inputs, indicates the pilot has actually stalled the aircraft.