Predictors of cadmium and lead concentrations in the blood of residents from the metropolitan area of Athens (Greece).

Abstract The Cd and Pb blood contents of healthy adult subjects who are non-occupationally exposed and living in the metropolitan area of Athens (Greece) have not been assessed thus far. Additionally, Greeks rank first among EU27 in terms of smoking habits. To fill the existing gap, we aimed to evaluate the predictors and propose reference values (RVs) of the Cd (CdB) and Pb (PbB) blood concentrations in residents of the metropolitan area of Athens (Greece). Age, sex, smoking, alcohol drinking, educational status and nutritional habits were used as variables, with an emphasis on smoking. CdB and PbB determinations were performed directly by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS) following the appropriate dilution of the samples with Triton-X-100. The RVs of CdB and PbB proposed for the general adult population of the Metropolitan area of Athens, Greece (upper limit of the 95% CI of the 95th percentile of the distribution of values), were 2.3 and 88 μg L − 1 (P95: 1.8 and 77 μg L − 1 ; 95% CI (P95): 1.5–2.3 and 70–88 μg L − 1 ), respectively. Males had a higher median CdB (0.69 μg L − 1 ) than females (0.55 μg L − 1 ). Subjects aged − 1 ) than the elderly (≥ 60 years; 0.60 μg L − 1 ). The CdB in smokers (1.2 μg L − 1 ) was almost threefold higher than in non-smokers (0.46 μg L − 1 ). The PbB levels were higher in males (31 μg L − 1 ) than females (20 μg L − 1 ). Subjects aged − 1 ) than the elderly (≥ 60 years; 32 μg L − 1 ). A multiple linear regression analysis demonstrated that the predictor variables for the CdB levels were the standardized beta weight, smoking, age, alcohol consumption, and intake of leafy vegetables, whereas for the PbB levels they were sex and age.