Impact of gut microbiota: How it could play roles beyond the digestive system on development of cardiovascular and renal diseases

Abstract In recent years, a significant interest in gut microbiota-host crosstalk has increased due to the involvement of gut bacteria on host health and diseases. Gut dysbiosis, a change in the gut microbiota composition alters host-microbiota interactions and induces gut immune dysregulation that have been associated with pathogenesis of several diseases, including cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and chronic kidney diseases (CKD). Gut microbiota affect the host, mainly through the immunological and metabolism-dependent and metabolism-independent pathways. In addition to these, the production of trimethylamine (TMA)/trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), uremic toxins and lipopolysaccharides (LPS) by gut microbiota are involved in the pathogenesis of CVD and CKD. Given the current approaches and challenges that can reshape the bacterial composition by restoring the balance between host and microbiota. In this review, we discuss the complex interplay between the gut microbiota, and the heart and the kidney, and explain the gut-cardiovascular axis and gut-kidney axis on the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases and chronic kidney diseases. In addition, we discuss the interplay between gut and kidney on hypertension or cardiovascular pathology.