A Monte‐Carlo‐based and GPU‐accelerated 4D‐dose calculator for a pencil beam scanning proton therapy system

Purpose: The presence of respiratory motion during radiation treatment leads to degradation of the expected dose distribution, both for target coverage and healthy-tissue sparing, particularly for techniques like pencil-beam scanning proton therapy which have dynamic delivery systems. While tools exist to estimate this degraded four-dimensional (4D) dose, they typically have one or more deficiencies such as ... Methods: To quickly compute the 4D-dose, the three main tasks of the calculator were run on graphics processing units (GPUs). These tasks were: simulating the delivery of the plan using measured delivery parameters to distribute the plan amongst 4DCT phases characterizing the patient breathing, using an in-house Monte Carlo simulation (MC) dose calculator to determine the dose delivered to each breathing phase, and accumulating the doses from the various breathing phases onto a single phase for evaluation. The accumulation was performed by individually transferring the energy and mass of dose-grid subvoxels, a technique models the transfer of dose in a more physically realistic manner. The calculator was run ... Results: 4D doses were successfully computed for the three test cases with computation times ranging from 4-6 min on a server with eight NVIDIA Titan X graphics cards; the most time-consuming component was the MC dose engine. The subvoxel-based dose-accumulation technique produced stable 4D-dose distributions at subvoxel scales of 0.5-1.0 mm without impairing the total computation time. The uncertainties in the beam-delivery simulation ... Conclusions: A MC-based and GPU-accelerated 4D-dose calculator was developed to estimate the effects of respiratory motion on pencil-beam scanning proton therapy treatments. The calculator can currently be used ...