Transforming growth factor‐β and Ras regulate the VEGF/VEGF‐receptor system during tumor angiogenesis

The formation of new microvasculature by capillary sprouting, or angiogenesis, is a prerequisite for solid tumor growth. The genetic alterations required to activate the angiogenic program in tumor angiogenesis are still only vaguely known, but dominantly acting oncoproteins may have a much greater impact than previously realized. Here we have studied the consequences of oncogenic transformation on tumor angiogenesis in a mouse mammary carcinoma model. We provide evidence that the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and of the VEGF receptor-2 (Flk-1), a signaling system centrally involved in tumor angiogenesis, occurs efficiently in tumors formed by Ras-transformed mammary epithelial cells and that both TGF-β1 and hypoxia are potent inducers of VEGF expression in these cells. VEGF induction in the tumor periphery is mainly triggered by TGF-β1, whereas VEGF expression in perinecrotic areas is regulated by both hypoxia and TGF-β1. As the Ras-transformed tumor cells convert into migrating, fibroblastoid cells that start to produce TGF-β during tumor progression, the TGF-β effect on VEGF expression becomes propagated throughout the tumor tissue. Thus, in progressed tumors, areas of TGF-β1 activation and hypoxia may overlap and hence cooperate to induce VEGF expression and angiogenesis. Nevertheless, the overexpression of VEGF in non-Ras-transformed mouse mammary epithelial cells was not sufficient to promote vascularization in vivo. Based on these findings, we conclude that amongst the multiple mutations that render a normal cell tumorigenic, oncogenic Ras is a major player that in conjunction with the tumor's micro-environment sets the stage for tumor cell invasion and angiogenesis. © 2002 Wiley-Liss, Inc.