The commercial 3D bioprinting industry

Abstract Modern three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting promises the creation of bespoke tissue-engineered constructs that would herald the end of donor site morbidity, creation of solid complex organs “made to order,” and facilitate a revolution in both biological sciences and medical research. Biotechnology companies along with major laboratories worldwide, in response to this potential, have invested decades and millions of dollars in the development of printing technology and its applications across a number of disciplines. The relatively simple core principle of stereolithography developed in the 1980s has sparked a materials and technological revolution that has seen the development of more precise printers, intelligent bioinks, and scaffold materials capable of supporting de novo tissue growth. The original aims of producing solid 3D polymer models have been superseded, and today 3D bioprinting is used in a range of scientific and commercial fields such as in drug delivery systems, cosmetic testing, and in the printing of customized 3D scaffolds to support tissue growth [1–3]. While much of the activity worldwide is research based, there is already a significant commercial element, which incorporates these new technologies into modern practice. The current uses of 3D printing include the creation of devices and implants which have been available for a number of years and allow the production of personalized implants to augment operative technique and bespoke 3D prosthesis for reconstruction [4–6].