Cation−π Interactions and Their Contribution to Mussel Underwater Adhesion Studied Using a Surface Forces Apparatus: A Mini-Review

Mussel underwater adhesion is a model phenomenon important for the understanding of broader biological adhesion and the development of biomimetic wet adhesives. The catechol moiety of 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl-l-alanine (DOPA) is known to be actively involved in the mechanism of mussel underwater adhesion; however, other underwater adhesion mechanisms are also crucial. The surface forces apparatus (SFA) has often been used to explore the contributions of other mechanisms to mussel underwater adhesion; e.g., recent SFA-based nanomechanical studies have revealed that cation−π interactions, one of the strongest intermolecular interactions in water, are the pivotal interactions of adhesive proteins involved in underwater mussel adhesion. This mini-review surveys recent research on cation−π interactions and their contributions to strong mussel underwater adhesion, shedding light on some biological processes and facilitating the development of biomedical adhesives.