Enzyme-Responsive Biopolymeric Nanogel Fibers by Extrusion: Engineering of High-Surface-Area Hydrogels and Application in Bacterial Enzyme Detection.

The fabrication of covalently cross-linked high-surface-area biopolymeric nanogel fibers by nanopore extrusion is reported for the first time. The biopolymer pullulan was functionalized with tert-butyl acetoacetate via a transesterification reaction to synthesize the water-soluble ketone-rich precursor pullulan acetoacetate (PUAA). PUAA and carbonic dihydrazide (CDH) as cross-linker were extruded through anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) nanoporous membranes, which possessed an average pore diameter of 61 ± 2 nm. By changing the concentration of PUAA, the flow rate, and extrusion time, the step polymerization cross-linking reaction was controlled so that the polymer can be extruded gradually during cross-linking through the membrane, avoiding the formation of macroscopic bulk hydrogels and rupture of the AAO membrane. Fibers with diameters on the order of 250 nm were obtained. This approach was also expanded to functionalized PUAA derivatives together with the fluorogenic substrate 4-methylumbelliferyl-β-d-glucuronide MUGlcU in (PUAA-MUGlcU), which exhibited a mean equilibrium swelling ratio of 5.7 and 9.0 in Milli-Q water and in phosphate-buffered saline, respectively. β-Glucuronidase was sensitively detected via fluorescence of 4-methylumbelliferone, which was liberated in the enzymatic hydrolysis reaction of PUAA-MUGlcU. Compared to hydrogel slabs, the rate of the hydrolysis was >20% higher in the nanogel fibers, facilitating the rapid detection of β-glucuronidase-producing Escherichia coli (E. coli Mach1-T1). Nanopore extruded nanogel fibers are therefore considered a viable approach to enhance the functionality of hydrogels in surface-dominated processes.