Social Supports in the Lives of Child Welfare-Involved Families

The literature on child maltreatment recognizes that parents who are reported to child welfare services often struggle with a number of challenges. These challenges are related to, though not limited to, various psychosocial, mental, or physical health conditions, substance and/or alcohol abuse, domestic violence, economic, and/or legal issues (Andrews, 2013). These parents have multiple needs, such as housing, income, education, health, childcare, and family relationships (Maluccio, 1989). Moreover, parents faced with the removal of a child or an investigation of child abuse and/or neglect experience a variety of feelings that extend from mistrust, apprehension, guilt, and uncertainty to frustration and outrage (Bicknell-Hentges, 1995). This is further exacerbated by the trauma of separation and the feeling of stigma experienced with the child welfare system involvement (Scholte et al., 1999).Parents may not be able to rely on family members for support throughout the various phases of the investigatory and reunification or placement phases. In families with limited resources as well as substance abuse problems, the parent may have already stretched extended family resources to the limit (Hirshorn, Van Meter, & Brown, 2000). A study comparing non-neglecting and neglecting mothers found that interactions of neglecting mothers with others were described as distrustful, confrontational, and lacking mutuality (Beeman, 1997). Beeman further characterized maltreating parents as socially isolated due to the lack of frequent interaction with their social network members or fewer resources available.While faced with multiple challenges, these parents have limited support sources due to loneliness and disconnectedness from others and social isolation due to the lack of available and quality relationships (Cameron, 2002). Several studies have linked social isolation with an increased risk of disengaged parenting, maternal depression, and child maltreatment (Garbarino 1976; Gelles & Straus, 1979; Salzinger, Kaplan, & Artemyeff, 1983; Chalk & King, 1998; Reppucci, Woolard, & Fried, 1999). Similarly, loneliness may be a contributing factor limiting parents' capability to offer stable, caring, and attentive care to their children (Center for the Study of Social Policy, 2013). Ortega (2002) has indicated that child welfare-involved families report "more feelings of loneliness, social isolation, and less neighbor, friend, and kin support than their non-maltreating counterparts" (pp. 853-854). Rodgers (1998) has linked parental stress and child abuse/neglect to the shortage of social and interactions supports. Oates and Forrest (1985) suggested a relationship between a lack of social supports among child welfareinvolved parents to a hesitation and unwillingness to discuss their difficulties with others. Furthermore, parents with higher degrees of informal social support were less likely to face financial challenges and experience depressive symptoms in comparison to those with lower degrees of support (Lyons, Henly, & Schuerman, 2005). Other research studies have confirmed the positive effects of social support on numerous outcomes, such as children's educational outcomes (Rosenfeld & Richman, 2003), caregiver depression (Lyons et al., 2005), family coping strategies (Jones, 1997; Runtz & Schallow, 1997) and community involvement (Corse, Schmid, & Trickett, 1990; Roditti, 2005).Social support has been defined differently in the literature on families in child welfare. According to Sarafino (1994), social support included the comfort, caring, and help that were available to parents, which helped improve self-esteem and reduce vulnerability to stress. Furthermore, Cameron and Vanderwoerd (1997) classified social support into four types: instrumental; educational, informational; emotional; and social integration. Likewise, Hoagwood and colleagues (2010) defined family support as services that helped caregivers "(a) clarify their own needs or concerns; (b) reduce their sense of isolation, stress, or self-blame; (c) provide education or information; (d) teach skills; and (e) empower and activate them, so that they can more effectively address the needs of their families" (p. …