Cognitive dysfunction in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: The challenge in diagnosis and management:

Cognitive dysfunction is one of the five psychiatric syndromes recognised by the American College of Rheumatologists neuropsychiatric lupus nomenclature committee. Cognitive dysfunction affects 20%–80% of systemic lupus erythematosus patients with and without overt central nervous system involvement. Specific cognitive dysfunction associated with systemic lupus erythematosus includes impairment in attention, memory and visuospatial process. Besides disease activity and vascular risk factors, the neuropathology behind cognitive dysfunction in systemic lupus erythematosus is a result of dysfunction involving the immune cells, cytokines, chemokines and autoantibodies (Abs), as well as volume reduction in the white matter and grey matter. In this review, we will discuss the challenges of using traditional neuropsychological assessment to assess cognitive function in clinical practice, the limitations of conventional neuroimaging methods, the controversies of using corticosteroids, other pharmacological treatm...