Checkpoint Inhibitors: The Diagnosis and Treatment of Side Effects

Background Treatment with checkpoint inhibitors such as anti-programmed death-1 (anti-PD-1), anti-PD-ligand 1 (anti-PD-L1), and anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (anti-CTLA-4) antibodies can prolong the survival of cancer patients, but it also induces autoimmune side effects in 86–96% of patients by activating the immune system. In 17–59% of patients, these are severe or even life-threatening.